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Chapter Two: Gregorian Chant in Roman Liturgy
Gregorian chant served as the musical foundation for Christian worship, encompassing melodies that range from straightforward recitation to intricate florid lines, each tailored to its role within the liturgy. To fully appreciate chant, one must consider its context within the elaborate structure of Christian services. The Roman liturgy, shaped by centuries of development and refinement, presents a complex tapestry of ritual and music, much of which evolved gradually and often remained obscure to the worshippers themselves. Recognizing this historical background helps clarify both the liturgical framework and the rich variety of chant.
Central to the Roman Catholic tradition is the Mass, which commemorates the Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples, as described in Luke 22:14–20. Celebrated daily in monasteries, convents, and major churches, and weekly in all congregations, the Mass is repeated multiple times on major feast days. Its texts are divided into two main categories: the Proper, whose words change according to the liturgical calendar and the Ordinary, whose texts remain constant—though their melodies may vary. Proper chants are named for their liturgical function while Ordinary chants are identified by their opening words. Each day of the liturgical calendar (Sundays, weekdays, feasts, and memorials) has its own set of Proper chants: Introit, Gradual (or Tract, depending on the season), Alleluia (except in Lent), Offertory, and Communion. These chants are called Proprium Missae (the Proper of the Mass) and are found in liturgical books such as the Graduale Romanum and Liber Usualis (see below). On major feasts (like Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, and saints’ days), the Proper chants are often more elaborate and specific to the event. On ordinary days, the chants are simpler and sometimes shared with other days or grouped into “Commons” (for types of saints, for example). For days that do not have their own unique Proper (such as a saint who does not have a dedicated feast), the liturgy uses chants from the “Common of Saints” (e.g., Common of Martyrs, Common of Virgins), which provide appropriate texts and melodies for various categories of saints.
Ordinary chants—the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei—are used at every Mass because their texts are fixed and do not change with the liturgical calendar. However, the melodies (musical settings) for these chants can and do vary depending on the feast, season, or local custom. For Christmas Mass and other feasts, any of the standard Gregorian chant melodies for the Ordinary (as found in the Kyriale) could be used. There is no single “required” or exclusive melody for the Ordinary, but certain melodies are traditionally favored for major feasts to add solemnity and festivity. For example, Mass settings such as Missa de Angelis or Missa Orbis Factor are often chosen for Christmas because of their grandeur and familiarity. Originally, many Ordinary chants were sung by the congregation, but over time these became the responsibility of the choir, which was traditionally composed of men (or, in convents, women).
The Mass begins with the entrance procession of the priest and his assistants, accompanied by incense and the singing of the Introit, a psalm-based chant marking the start of the service (e.g. Puer natus est nobis, track 1 in playlist – used for Christmas Mass). Once the celebrants are in place, the choir continues with the Kyrie, a threefold invocation of mercy that also symbolizes the Holy Trinity (e.g. Kyrie Cunctipotens Genitor, track 2 in playlist). On Sundays and feast days outside Advent and Lent, the Gloria follows—a hymn of praise that further emphasizes the Trinity and repeats the plea for mercy (track 3 in playlist). The priest then offers the Collect, a prayer on behalf of the assembled worshippers.
After these introductory rites, the Mass shifts to readings and instruction, familiarizing participants with scripture and doctrine. The subdeacon intones the Epistle, followed by the Gradual and Alleluia—two elaborate chants performed by soloists with choral responses (e.g. Viderunt omnes and Dies sanctificatus, tracks 4 & 5 in the playlist – both used for Christmas Mass). These pieces, based on psalm texts, represent the musical zenith of the Mass, drawing attention to the interplay of text and melody. During Easter, the Gradual may be replaced by an additional Alleluia, while in Lent the joyful Alleluia gives way to the more somber Tract. On certain occasions, a Sequence follows the Alleluia. The deacon then proclaims the Gospel, after which the priest may deliver a sermon. On Sundays and major feasts, this section concludes with the Credo, a profession of faith that recounts the life, death, and resurrection of Christ (track 6).
The liturgy then turns to the preparation of the bread and wine for communion, accompanied by the Offertory chant (e.g. Tui sunt caeli, track 7 – used for Christmas Mass). After spoken prayers and the Secret, the Preface—a dialogue between priest and choir—introduces the Sanctus, echoing the angelic praise from Isaiah’s vision (track 8). The priest recites the Canon, including the consecration, and sings the Lord’s Prayer. The choir responds with the Agnus Dei, a plea for mercy adapted from ancient litanies (track 9). In the medieval Mass, the priest alone received communion, a practice that has since been restored to include the congregation. The choir sings the Communion chant, based on a psalm, and the priest offers the Postcommunion prayer (e.g. Viderunt omnes, track 10 – used for Christmas Mass). The service concludes with Ite, missa est (Go, it is ended), from which the term for the entire service was derived: Missa in Latin and “Mass” in English (track 11). When the Gloria is omitted, Benedicamus Domino (Let us bless the Lord) replaces Ite, missa est.
Beyond the Mass, early Christians observed regular prayer and psalmody throughout the day and night. These practices were formalized into the Office, a cycle of eight daily services that have been central to monastic life since the early Middle Ages. Outside monasteries, the Office varied in structure and content, resulting in a more diverse and localized repertoire of chants compared to the Mass. Each Office service includes psalms with antiphons, scripture readings with responsories, hymns, canticles, and prayers. Over the course of a week, all 150 psalms are sung at least once. The most significant Office services, both liturgically and musically, are Matins, Lauds, and Vespers.
Throughout the Middle Ages, liturgical texts and music were compiled in handwritten books by scribes, and later printed under church authority. The Missal and Gradual contain the texts and chants for the Mass, while the Breviary and Antiphoner serve the same purpose for the Office. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Benedictine monks of Solesmes produced modern editions of these books, culminating in the Liber usualis, which offers a standardized collection of the most frequently used texts and chants. These Solesmes editions, now widely used in both worship and recordings, provide an accessible introduction to Gregorian chant, even as they reflect a modern synthesis of a tradition that was once far more varied and regionally diverse.
Styles, Structures, and Liturgical Functions of Chant
Gregorian chant encompasses a wide spectrum of musical styles, reflecting the diverse functions and historical evolution of the liturgy. Performances may vary, with some chants sung by a soloist and choir in alternation (responsorial), others by two groups of singers taking turns (antiphonal), and yet others sung straight through without breaks (direct). Each of these approaches has traditionally been linked to specific types of chant, though practices have evolved over time. Chant settings also differ in their treatment of text: some assign a single note to each syllable (syllabic), others use a small group of notes per syllable (neumatic), and the most elaborate feature long, ornate passages on a single syllable (melismatic). Many chants blend these styles, shifting between them to suit the meaning or structure of the text. Some parts of the Mass and Office are sung to simple recitation formulas—melodic outlines that can be adapted to many different texts. Other sections are set to fully formed melodies. Even the most elaborate melodies often build upon underlying formulas, blurring the distinction between the two categories.
Chant melodies, whether simple or complex, serve primarily to convey the words. Unlike later vocal music, chant composers did not aim to express emotion or depict images, but rather shaped their melodies to mirror the natural flow and accentuation of the text. Phrases in chant typically rise and fall like an arch, echoing the rhythm and contour of spoken Latin (track 12). Accented syllables are often set higher, and important words may be emphasized by longer note groupings, though sometimes melismas appear on less significant syllables for contrast.
Among the simplest chants are the recitation formulas used for prayers and readings, such as the Collect, Epistle, and Gospel. These are almost entirely syllabic, with most of the text sung on a single reciting note and brief melodic motives marking the ends of phrases or sentences. These formulas predate the modal system and are not assigned to any specific mode. They are performed by the priest or an assistant, with occasional responses from the choir or congregation. Their simplicity reflects the practical needs of priests, who were not always trained singers and had extensive texts to recite.
Slightly more elaborate are the psalm tones, formulas for singing psalms in the Office. Each of the eight modes has its own psalm tone, using the mode’s reciting tone as the main pitch for most of the text. These psalm tones remain in use today in Catholic, Anglican, and other traditions, continuing a practice that is at least twelve centuries old. Office antiphons frame the singing of psalms or canticles, providing context for the event or person being commemorated. Since the cycle of 150 psalms is sung weekly, while the antiphon changes daily, each psalm is paired with many different antiphons throughout the year. Office hymns, familiar to almost all Christian traditions, are strophic songs with several stanzas sung to the same melody. These hymns are performed in every Office service, with melodies that often repeat phrases to create varied patterns.
Psalmody also features in the Mass, where psalms sung with antiphons originally accompanied liturgical actions such as the entrance procession and communion. Over time, these chants—the Introit and Communion—were shortened and repositioned within the service. Mass antiphons are typically more ornate than their Office counterparts, often featuring neumatic or melismatic passages. Responsorial psalmody, in which a soloist sings verses and the choir or congregation responds with a refrain, is rooted in early Christian and Jewish practice. This structure underlies the Office responsories and the Gradual, Alleluia, and Offertory in the Mass. Over time, these chants became increasingly ornate, especially in the solo sections, as singers demonstrated their skill.
The Ordinary of the Mass—Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei—was originally sung by the congregation to simple, syllabic melodies. As Latin became less familiar to laypeople, these chants were taken over by the choir, and new, more elaborate melodies were composed. These later settings are characterized by clear modal identity, melodic repetition, and individual musical profiles. The Credo, with its lengthy text, is always set syllabically. The Gloria, also text-heavy, is usually neumatic. Both feature recurring motives but lack fixed forms. The priest intones the opening words, and the choir completes the chant. Most Sanctus and Agnus Dei melodies are neumatic, with musical repetition reflecting the repetition in the text. The Sanctus often uses the same music for the final “Hosanna” statements, while the Agnus Dei may repeat the same melody for all three petitions or vary the closing phrase. The Kyrie’s repetitive text invites florid settings, with melismas often appearing on the final syllables of “Kyrie” and “Christe” and the first syllable of “eleison.” The Kyrie is typically sung antiphonally by two halves of the choir, with the final statement extended for both groups to join together. From the thirteenth century onward, Ordinary chants were often grouped in cycles, with one setting for each text except the Credo. While there were many melodies for Ite, missa est in the Middle Ages, the Liber usualis cycles used the melody of the first Kyrie.
Additions to the Authorized Chant Repertory
After the chant repertoire began to be standardized in the ninth century, church musicians continued to expand it. New melodies were written for the Mass Ordinary, and Office services were revised. Whenever a new saint’s day, Marian commemoration, or other feast was added to the liturgical calendar, new chants were composed or existing ones adapted for the occasion. Over fifty named composers—and hundreds of anonymous ones—contributed such chants, many for local saints. Musicians also introduced three new types of chant as supplements to the official liturgy: tropes, sequences, and liturgical dramas.
A trope expanded an existing chant in three possible ways:
(1) By adding new words and music before the chant (an introductory trope) or before each phrase (an intercalated trope);
(2) By extending or adding melismas—melodic flourishes—without new text;
(3) By adding new text to existing melismas (commonly called a prosula, or “prose”).
All three approaches increased the solemnity and length of the chant, offering musicians creative opportunities within the boundaries of the authorized repertoire, much like medieval scholars who added commentary in the margins of biblical manuscripts. The added words often served as a gloss, interpreting the chant text and connecting it more closely to the feast or occasion. Trope composition flourished in monasteries across France, England, Germany, Italy, and Spain during the tenth and eleventh centuries. While some tropes gained widespread use, most were performed only locally. Their popularity waned in the twelfth century, and the Council of Trent (1545–63) banned them to simplify and standardize the liturgy. Tropes illustrate the medieval impulse to embellish and personalize the authorized chant, an impulse that also fueled the development of polyphony.
Hodie cantandus est is an introductory trope for the Christmas Introit Puer natus est nobis composed by Tuotilo of St. Gall around the year 900 and was widely used throughout the Middle Ages, appearing in numerous liturgical manuscripts across Europe. The trope adds new text and melody before the main Introit chant, serving as a kind of poetic introduction that sets the theological and celebratory tone for the feast. Its structure and function are classic examples of the trope genre, which embellishes and expands existing liturgical chants (track 13 – the Introit begins at 1:47).
The sequence, a genre popular from the late ninth to the thirteenth centuries in regions including France, England, Germany, Switzerland, northern Italy, and Spain, was sung after the Alleluia at Mass. Sequences are set syllabically to texts that are mostly in couplets—early examples in prose, later ones in regular meter and rhyme. Like tropes, but with more elevated language, sequences elaborate on the themes of the service. While tropes were attached to existing chants, sequences were independent compositions. The origin of the sequence is uncertain, but the name derives from sequentia (Latin for “something that follows”), originally a melisma added to the end of an Alleluia. Composers sometimes borrowed melodic material from Alleluia chants, but most sequence melodies were newly composed. Manuscripts often present sequences in two forms: with text and as extended melismas on “Alleluia.” New texts were frequently written for existing sequence melodies.
Most sequences begin with a single sentence, followed by a series of paired phrases, and conclude with an unpaired phrase. Within each pair, the two phrases usually have the same number of syllables and are set to the same music, following the form ABBCC…N. The tonal focus is typically clear, with most phrases ending on the modal final. By the twelfth century, sequences with rhymed poetry and even-length verses became more common, and many lost the unpaired verses at the beginning and end. Adam of St. Victor (d. 1146), active in Paris, is known for sequences with allegorical texts and poetic form: three-line verses in trochaic meter (eight, eight, and seven syllables), paired with the rhyme scheme aab ccb. The melodies remain primarily syllabic but often include short groups of two or three notes.
Like tropes, sequences embellished the liturgy and provided an outlet for creativity. Thousands were composed during the ninth to twelfth centuries, including some of the most profound songs of the Middle Ages. Though some sequences were widely used, local practice varied. The Council of Trent banned most sequences, retaining only a handful such as Victimae paschali laudes and Dies irae.
Congaudent angelorum chori by Nokter Balbulus (c. 840–6 April 912) is a classic example of the sequence genre, which became especially popular in the St. Gall Abbey tradition, where Notker was a leading figure. The sequence was typically sung after the Alleluia at Mass on major feasts. It was especially associated with the Feast of the Assumption (August 15), though it was also used for other Marian feasts and, in some local traditions, adapted for other occasions.
Some tropes took the form of dialogues, bringing biblical events to life. An early example, from the late tenth or early eleventh century, Quem queritis in presepe (track 15) is a Christmas dialogue modeled after the famous Easter dialogue Quem queritis in sepulchro (“Whom do you seek in the sepulchre?”). This trope dramatizes the biblical story of the shepherds’ visit to the Christ Child, as recounted in Luke 2:8–20, and sometimes incorporates medieval traditions involving midwives at the Nativity. The dialogue typically consists of two exchanges: first, the midwives (or sometimes angels) ask, “Quem queritis in presepe, pastores, dicite?” (“Whom do you seek in the manger, shepherds, say?”). The shepherds respond, “Salvatorem Christum Dominum, infantem pannis involutum secundum sermonem angelicum.” (“The Savior Christ the Lord, the child wrapped in swaddling clothes, according to the angel’s word.”). By taking on these roles and performing the dialogue—often with a manger placed near the altar—the participants reenact the shepherds’ discovery of the newborn Jesus, bringing the Nativity story vividly to life within the Christmas liturgy.
Such additions became known as liturgical dramas. Recorded in liturgical books and performed in church, they often included processions and stylized actions. Easter and Christmas dialogues were especially widespread. From the twelfth century onward, additional plays dramatized events from the Church year, some performed within the liturgy and others staged separately. Notable examples include the Fleury Playbook (from a Benedictine monastery in central France) and the early-thirteenth-century Play of Daniel from Beauvais. The music for these dramas consisted of chants and sometimes more secular songs. All roles, including women’s, were usually sung by male clergy and choir, except in a few places where nuns participated.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), abbess and visionary, achieved remarkable success as a writer and composer. She is the medieval composer with the largest surviving body of chant. Most of her songs, for which she wrote both words and music, honor the Virgin Mary, the Trinity, or local saints. Her works, mainly composed for Office services, range from syllabic hymns to highly melismatic responsories.
Her most ambitious work is Ordo virtutum (The Virtues, ca. 1151), a sacred music drama with eighty-two songs. This allegorical play features characters such as the Prophets, the Virtues, the Happy Soul, the Unhappy Soul, and the Penitent Soul, with the Virtues leading the fallen soul back to the faithful. All parts are sung in plainchant except the Devil, who speaks—symbolizing his separation from God.
“O nos peregrine sumus” (“O, we are strangers” – track 16) is a poignant choral chant in Hildegard’s Ordo virtutum that marks a significant moment early in the drama. It is the fourth chant in the work’s sequence and is generally sung by the Virtues as a group, expressing the lament of souls exiled from their heavenly home and struggling with the trials of earthly existence. The Latin lyrics, “O nos peregrine sumus. Quid fecimus, ad peccata deviantes? Filie regis esse debuimus, sed in umbram peccatorum cecidimus. O vivens sol, porta nos in humeris tuis,” translate to: “O, we are strangers. What have we done, straying into sin? We should have been daughters of the king, but we have fallen into the shadow of sins. O living sun, carry us on your shoulders.” This passage captures the sorrow and longing of the Virtues (and, by extension, all souls) for redemption and return to divine grace.
The chant follows the initial exchanges between the Patriarchs and Prophets and the Virtues, and precedes the entrance of the individual Soul (Anima) and the Devil. Its placement sets the emotional tone for the unfolding drama of temptation, fall, and eventual reconciliation. The Virtues’ collective voice in “O nos peregrine sumus” underscores the universal human condition of exile and the desire for spiritual restoration, serving as a bridge between the work’s prologue and the central narrative of the Soul’s struggle and salvation.
At a time when women could not instruct men, Hildegard’s reputation as a visionary allowed her voice to be heard beyond the convent. Her music, however, was likely known only locally.
Chant’s Enduring Legacy in Western Music
Gregorian chant was central to Christian worship in central and western Europe until the Reformation and remained so in Catholic regions afterward. Most people heard chant at least weekly, and it was the primary activity of professional singers until the late sixteenth century. Composers like Leoninus, Du Fay, Ockeghem, Josquin, and Palestrina spent much of their careers singing and directing chant.
Chant was reformed in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries and again in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) allowed Catholic services to be held in local languages, and chant was no longer prescribed. By the late twentieth century, chant was mostly practiced in monasteries and convents or performed in concert, known mainly through recordings.
From the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, chant formed the foundation for most polyphonic music and continued to influence sacred music well into the sixteenth century. The diversity inherent in chant—from syllabic to melismatic styles and various modes—was reflected in later service music. After the Reformation, many chants were adapted as chorale or hymn tunes in Protestant churches, and chant-derived melodies are still used today in Lutheran, Anglican, and other traditions.
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, composers incorporated chant melodies into both sacred and secular works. Yet, the influence of Gregorian chant extends beyond direct quotation. For over a thousand years, chant shaped the musical sensibilities of Europeans, leaving a lasting imprint on all later Western music.